Improving Farmer Motivation Within Tb Vector Control
1 Landcare Research, P.O. Box 69, Lincoln, New Zealand
2 (former intern researcher at Landcare Research), 24 Waverley Road, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
[Reference as: Kilvington, M., Allen, W. and Kravchenko, C. (1999) Improving Farmer Motivation Within Tb Vector Control. Landcare Research Contract Report: LC9899/110 3 ]
Contents
1. Summary
'Increasing motivation' is often spoken of as though it is a single objective. However, this research has highlighted how motivation is made up of numerous factors, not all of which are immediately evident and only some of which are subject to direct and deliberate influence. Two principal types of factors were noted: (i) subjective norms i.e., what the individual perceives to be the social pressures promoting a certain behaviour and; (ii) personal attitudes towards that behaviour. A combination of regulations, incentives and disincentives, and voluntary approaches can influence motivation factors in varying ways. Voluntary approaches (such as the LIP groups) are attractive policy options for reasons of flexibility and acceptance by the target group. To be effective at influencing behaviour, voluntary initiatives need to be supported by learning-based, technology transfer.
Farmer involvement in local vector control groups provides a significant opportunity to influence landowners' perceptions of the importance of the Tb problem, and their understanding of the control methods available to them. It can also influence the degree of social pressure experienced by landowner's to undertake control on their properties. A number of Local Initiative Programme (LIP) and voluntary groups have already been established through the efforts of AHB. These groups provide a vehicle for improved information sharing, collaborative learning, and influencing behaviour change.
Groups that function well do not happen by accident and it cannot be expected that groups will function successfully all the time. Awareness of what is happening to a group, understanding of a group's needs for resources and leadership, and access to the skills necessary to address this, are crucial to the long-term viability of groups, and their success in achieving their goals. Successful groups are those that have confidence in leadership, a sense of cooperation, good communication, and put effort into maintaining a good process as well as achieving set tasks. Encouraging members of groups to participate in monitoring the progress of the group and evaluating achievements is a way of strengthening motivation as well as increasing understanding.
Management of information is also an important ingredient in maintaining motivation. The Internet offers an opportunity to reduce the duplication of effort that occurs when many players are seeking the same new knowledge, and forms a powerful and immediate link between farmer group facilitators, group leaders, researchers, and other relevant agency staff.
- There are multiple factors that can affect landowner motivation to undertake Tb vector control. A range of policy approaches that address a mix of factors will have a greater likelihood of successfully influencing motivation. In particular, LIP groups can be used creatively to influence a number of these factors.
- Managing the various developmental stages of groups, their leadership and information needs requires support and active facilitation by those with good 'people' skills. Although much of the work by groups is voluntary, effectively managing and supporting these groups is an area that requires resourcing.
- Monitoring and evaluation of the LIP should take into account process aspects (such as group development, and core aspects of successful groups) as well as task achievement (such as the number of Tb vectors killed).
Back to contentsIntroduction
This research aims to provide appropriate frameworks for AHB to better understand the different factors which influence: (i) the motivation of landowner's to undertake Tb vector control; and (ii) the success of Tb vector farmer groups. These frameworks can be used directly by the AHB to identify areas in which they can modify their support, and as a basis for focussing further research. It is part of work carried out during 98/99 under the AHB-funded project No. R1456 'Assisting the identification and uptake of effective Tb vector control strategies'. A three-part research approach was undertaken:
- A selection of North Canterbury LIP group convenors were interviewed. The convenors were asked to describe their Tb vector-control efforts throughout the year, to discuss their reasons for undertaking this control, and to detail issues and problems associated with it. They were also asked to comment on how the LIP groups were functioning and their involvement with them (See full report: Kilvington et al. 1999 Appendix 2.1). This information was then used as a basis to develop the subsequent analysis and discussion outlined in the following two points.
- Frameworks were developed to provide an understanding of: i) motivation factors; and ii) group dynamics relevant to Tb vector control. A commentary is provided to show how these are linked and how they can be affected by various policy approaches including the use of LIP groups.
- These frameworks were then used to help address issues about motivation and group activity raised by convenors during the interviews and a subsequent workshop.
It should be noted that this research does not include a comprehensive survey of 'what motivates farmers to undertake Tb vector control' in North Canterbury, or an analysis of the current status of LIP groups and their effectiveness in achieving Tb vector control.
Research context
Given the level of Tb incidence, and the difficulties of multi-species vector control in North Canterbury, there is a clear need to complement AHB national and regional control efforts with improved farmer efforts. Farmers need to appreciate the problem and be continually motivated to contribute effort to help eradicate Tb. To support this action, farmers need the most cost-effective and up-to-date information. This is an area which is constantly changing through new research and better operational procedures.
Farmers do not always assign vector control as high priority and differ widely in their perceptions of the risks of Tb (e.g., dry stock farmers vs breeding cow enterprises). In addition, due to the wide- ranging territorial characteristic of the vectors, there is a need for collective approaches to manage them.
North Canterbury farmers recognised the Tb problem, and took collective action during 1995 and 1996 when the Tb incidence was escalating due to the advent of ferrets as a Tb vector. Forty-five farmer groups were formed to focus on an integrated possum, ferret, and rabbit control programme. The reduction in Tb incidence from June '95 to June '97 , can be largely credited to on-farm effort by these farmer groups. However, since 1998 this rate of reduction has stalled and the Canterbury Regional Animal Health Committee (RAHC ) expressed the view that this is related to a lack of motivation by farmers.
At meetings we have attended as part of this research this lack of motivation is commonly attributed to issues external to AHB's control, such as farm economics, drought, concerns about rabbits, and the release of the Rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) virus. However, while external issues certainly have an impact, motivation is driven by a number of factors, many of which can be influenced by the AHB.
An evaluation workshop was held with the North Canterbury Tb Management Committee on the 15 May 1997. This provided researchers and committee members with a broad look at how different activities, and interactions between different parties, fit within the wider Tb-eradication programme (Allen & Bosch 1998). The results recognised the importance of current management and related research efforts into both disease and vector control. They also highlighted the need for the AHB to actively pursue a more effective collaborative learning environment for those utilising research findings in the practice of reducing the spread of Tb.
This collaborative learning environment requires a number of social needs to be addressed, including improved communication, learning, and information/technology transfer and exchange. These, in turn, will lead to changed behaviour 'on the ground' in the form of integrated farm management that includes active Tb vector control. As one farmer said at a recent meeting, "we need to get farmers to realise that they need to maintain their efforts into vector control, in the same way that they need to maintain their efforts into drenching the hoggets."
Participants in this evaluation noted that little is currently known about these social aspects of Tb control and little research is carried out on how to set targets, design action plans, and monitor achievements in these areas. In turn, because it is hard to specify the necessary actions and their resulting outputs in quantitative terms, it is difficult to write objectives and allocate money for them (e.g., extension). Newsletters, field days and late-night phone calls are essential activities, but because outputs are hard to quantify, they tend to be omitted from the formal operating plan, and consequently remain largely underfunded. Much voluntary effort is expended in these activities.
This report aims to provide AHB with frameworks for understanding motivation and group behaviour, enabling them to target their support to improve on-farm efforts in Tb vector control.
4. Understanding Motivation
The question of what motivates people to undertake any action or behaviour is usually of most interest to us when there is some pressing desire to alter and influence that action. In the case of bovine Tb, agencies and farmers alike are interested in influencing rural property owners to take actions that will reduce the spread of Tb, including controlling stock movement and destroying potential disease vectors. The challenge of motivation in pest control is twofold: to raise the level of motivation of rural property owners to undertake Tb vector control, (especially problematic amongst those whose stock, and hence livelihood, are not directly affected by Tb); and to maintain this motivation level when Tb is not an overtly visible problem.
The term 'motivation' is often used generically to cover a complex array of persuasive elements. In this section we describe the range of factors that can influence the intention of farmers to undertake Tb vector control. We also look at the influence of various policy options and the role of information and education.
4.1 Motivating factors
The motivation of individuals to change their behaviour is affected by numerous factors, of which not all are immediately evident and only some are subject to direct and deliberate influence (Ajzen & Fishbein 1980).
Ajzen & Fishbein's theory suggests that people's intentions to undertake some action (such as Tb vector control) are a good indicator of their likely behaviour (leaving aside interference from unpredictable events, such as severe weather, physical accident et.c). Intentions to undertake various actions are in turn influenced by two principal types of factors: (i) subjective norms, i.e., what the individual perceives to be the social pressures promoting a behaviour, and (ii) personal attitudes towards that behaviour. The balance between the two streams of influence will vary according to the individual concerned and the action.
Figure 1 uses the results of the convenor interviews to outline some of these interacting factors which influence farmers to take-up and remain involved in Tb vector control initiatives.
 |
| Fig. 1 Factors affecting vector control motivation |
Motivation influences: Personal attitudes and beliefs
An individual landowner's attitude towards the importance of Tb vector control and the methods of Tb vector control available to them will influence their intention to undertake Tb vector control on their property. Factors affecting these personal attitudes and beliefs are outlined in Table 1.
Table 1. Personal attitudes and beliefs
| A. Perceived importance of Tb vector control How much importance a landowner places on control is influenced by:
|
| B. Perceptions about Tb vector control methods Qualities of the control methods likely to be important to landowners are:
|
Policy approaches that affect the degree of financial incentive/disincentive may persuade landowners of the importance of Tb control, but to differing degrees (depending on the landowner's financial position and their core business activity). Technology/information transfer approaches can enhance landowner's understanding of the problem and perception of the risks, as well as promote integration of pest control into standard practice for what is generally considered 'good farm management'. This integration into standard farming practice acts to counter competition from other pressing issues (such as drought and decline in product prices), which is currently a commonly cited reason for the decline in landowner investment in pest control (rightly or wrongly!). Similarly technology/information transfer techniques can do much to affect perceptions about control methods. The information transfer must be a two-way exchange (co-learning) between technology developers and those using the control methods, to ensure future development of technology addresses landowner needs and concerns.
4.1.2. Motivation influences: Social pressure
Factors affecting the degree of social pressure landowners experience in regard to Tb vector control are outlined in Table 2.
Table 2Perceived social pressure to undertake Tb vector control
| A landowner's intention to undertake some form of Tb vector control will be influenced by:
|
Information management and learning play a crucial role in helping to motivate people to undertake Tb vector control, through triggering these social pressure factors. Education can expand awareness of the social significance of the Tb issue as well as promote the understanding of regulatory policy mechanisms and consequently increase the likelihood of their being adhered to. Groups, such as those set up under the Local Initiative Programme, are a possible vehicle for education initiatives as well as a mechanism for increasing the perceived pressure to collaborate with neighbours and friends.
4.2 Policy and motivation
There is considerable evidence from the psychological literature that, all else being equal, a policy instrument is more likely to produce both compliance and a positive attitude change if it is perceived as non-coercive (e.g., Muir 1967, Kelman 1983). Thus, voluntary instruments such as compliance with recommended best-practice targets, are likely to be preferred by resource users over direct regulation because they are flexible, give individuals greater freedom and the opportunity to experiment with lesser known approaches to solve their problems. However, the extent to which voluntary approaches can be relied on as a principal tool, or whether these need to be combined with other policy options, and what those options should be, must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
Voluntary approaches are likely to work best, and have the greatest dependability, when there is a substantial coincidence between public interests and the private (especially commercial) interests of individuals. However, even in cases where public and private interests substantially coincide, voluntary approaches can only work if individuals (and the wider community in which they operate) fully appreciate the nature of the problem involved, and their own self-interest in the matter. This, in turn, requires that such voluntary approaches are supported by appropriate motivational, information, and educational efforts (Young et al. 1996). As shown in figure 2 these support-approaches can reinforce the effectiveness of other policy instruments.
 |
| Fig. 2 Major types of policy instruments that can be considered to support behaviour change relevant to bovine Tb vector control. (Adapted from Young et al. 1996) |
Motivation, information, and education are located at the base of the policy mix because of the major contribution they can make in reinforcing and making more effective each of the other mechanisms. If people are persuaded that Tb vector control is worthwhile, they are more likely to respond positively to a range of instruments: voluntary, regulatory, and economic. As Young et al. (1996) point out, prospects for changing behaviour will always be greater "if direct regulatory approaches are overlain with a web of mechanisms that create a financially attractive and voluntary atmosphere that encourages cooperation and the sharing of information."
4.3 Information, education, and motivation
The ability to make and influence decisions that directly affect an individual is a major factor in motivation. Involvement in decision making encourages people to buy into outcomes and work to see them implemented. Good decision making, at all levels, is dependent on sound information, hence the management of information is an important component in motivating people to undertake certain 'desirable' actions.
In Part I of this project, the ISKM (Integrated Systems for Knowledge Management) approach was introduced as an information management framework to develop best practice guidelines for effective Tb vector control strategies (Bosch & Allen 1998). It is based on a process of adaptive management or 'learning by doing', and aims to create closer links between science, policy making, and management. The use of ISKM, and similar processes, provides all involved with a learning environment in which 'useful knowledge' is developed through the participation and contribution of a number of stakeholders (researchers, farmers, policy makers etc). However, only representatives of the different interest groups can participate at any one time. Therefore there is a need to capture this knowledge to benefit those who have not been directly involved. This can be done through a range of media such as minutes of meetings, journal papers, memorandums, reports, the news media, telephone, facsimile and (last but certainly not least) face to face conversations. In other cases, especially in relation to more complex problems, computer based decision support programs can provide a decision-tree type format to guide people through the problem-solving exercise.
The Internet is emerging as a new complex management information system (MIS), which allows people to create, annotate, link together, and share information from a variety of sources and media. A number of researchers are also pointing to the potential of such systems to promote collaborative learning and problem solving (e.g., Carrascal et al. 1995; Allen et al. unpublished data).
An Internet-based MIS has been developed through this programme to provide best practice for ferret control. In this case the direct users of such an Internet-based system are not necessarily the farmers of North Canterbury. Clearly, not all farmers have access to computing and Internet facilities. However, in North Canterbury the majority of farmers belong to groups organised around the issue of pest management. These groups are serviced by facilitators and group leaders, and provide an effective cooperative environment for learning. Facilitators and group leaders are seen as the interface between the Internet information system and farmers. In addition, the Internet site has the potential to form a powerful and immediate link between farmer group facilitators, group leaders, researchers, and other relevant agency staff.
5. Managing Groups Effectively
Farmer involvement in local vector control groups provides a significant opportunity to influence landowners' perceptions of the importance of the Tb problem, and their understanding of the control methods available to them. It can also influence the degree of social pressure experienced by landowners' to undertake control on their properties. A number of Local Initiative Programme (LIP) and voluntary groups have already been established through the efforts of the AHB. These groups provide a vehicle for improved information sharing, collaborative learning, and influencing behaviour change.
The idea of working through groups to achieve these aims is not new. Most of us, if we wish to learn a new skill or broaden our perspectives on an issue, will seek out some collaborative learning environment such as a club or training programme. Similarly, talking an issue through is a natural process for many people. We gain new insights as we express our own views and we subsequently modify our views as other people provide us with new ways of looking at the issue at hand. Groups can also foster a collective sense of responsibility; we generally try to fit in with groups we are involved in.
Groups that function well do not happen by accident. It takes patience, persistence, and resources. It also requires skill in managing group dynamics to keep the group moving in a positive direction. It cannot be expected that groups will function successfully all the time. Awareness of what is happening to a group and access to the skills necessary to address this are crucial to the long-term viability of groups and their success in achieving their goals.
While successful groups are those that have been individually tailored to each situation, there are some common elements that make these groups work (a number of guides for those interested in reading more are listed in Appendix 12.1). As a starting point for reviewing the effectiveness of groups in North Canterbury, a brief summary of key issues and points distilled from other successful groups is provided here.
5.1 Defining goals and objectives
Groups are started for a number of reasons, and by many different players, in the wider community. Often they may be initiated by a community member to fulfil an identified local need. Often too, they will be initiated by an agency, especially where the issue is one that has wide geographic interest. It is important that the proponent of a project involving groups (e.g., AHB) should have a clear objective in mind when approaching a group for assistance. In this section we discuss what takes place once the group is established and has agreed to take on the task to meet the proponent's objective.
The objective from the proponent's perspective is the plan or policy. Once the plan or policy has been well demonstrated and the community group has agreed to participate in the process, it is the turn of the local group to work out how they can best achieve it. Often, where these groups are helping to meet an agency objective, support will be provided for this. Important steps are to develop: (i) their vision (or goal) of what they might achieve; (ii) some objectives that help attain the vision and provide benchmarks for success, and ; (iii) strategies (or actions) to meet the objectives. Groups have a tendency to ignore the vision and the objectives and jump into defining actions they want to see happen. Often these actions reflect the special interest they represent. Without the vision and objectives there is no way to measure progress, however well intentioned the actions.
Agencies must also be aware that their definition of group success may be the achievement of a single objective (e.g., to control Tb-vectors). However, for local people their time involvement in this may need to be balanced against a range of competing needs. In particular, it is important for agencies to be aware that in setting up these groups, and in gaining the involvement of key community leaders, they are tapping the same "largely voluntary" community resource that supports other community groups (e.g., landcare, sport, education, health). There is a need to accommodate this, and in some cases flexibility will be required to enable the same group to undertake different functions.
5.2 How groups work
Despite an obvious difference between many groups (a consequence of the variation in participants and the dynamics between them) there are several stages of group development that appear to be common to all. These stages are consistently described by a number of writers in this field, albeit using a variety of terminology (e.g., Hunter et al. 1992, Donaldson & Kilvington 1996). They are the developmental stages of "getting started" and "getting to work" through to "maturity" and "ending", where the group has reached a point of fulfilment and completion of its objectives. This development process is often referred to as forming, storming, norming/performing and dorming.
Active facilitation is often necessary throughout these developmental stages. This is to draw from a clear purpose from the group, to support the group in identifying actionable first steps and to maintain motivation in continued effort. Without effective facilitation and support it is not uncommon for groups to flounder midway, losing the initial enthusiasm which prompted the group to form. Complacency or loss of purpose can then prevent members from getting on with tasks at hand or assessing the effectiveness of what has already been undertaken. Table 3. illustrates the main ways of identifying groups in each of these stages and the corresponding facilitation needs.
Table 3. Different stages of group development
| Table 3. Different stages of group development | |
Forming
stage
|
Facilitating forming
|
| Note - if this stage is not done thoroughly it is likely to have to be revisited as the group loses sense of direction. | |
Storming stage
|
Facilitating storming
|
| Note - this stage is a common sticking point for many groups. | |
Norming/performing stage
|
Facilitating norming/performing Maintaining momentum by:
|
Dorming or ending stage
. |
Facilitating ending
|
5.3 Successful groups
Groups that are functioning well share a number of identifiable characteristics: confidence in leadership, a sense of cooperation, and good communication are three significant areas for effective group functioning. When a group has a strong sense of cooperation its members recognise the importance of the central issue for the group and the necessity to work with others to achieve their desired objectives. This desire for cooperation prompts members to play their part and build the trust and confidence that will ensure the collaboration of others. Good communication is a pillar for building this sense of co-operation. This communication may range from something as simple as ensuring that participants are aware of and present at meetings, to promoting the successful exchange of valuable technical information between the participants. Good communication also ensures participants are able to express views and concerns, and are less likely to withdraw from the group from a sense of not being able to contribute or influence the direction of the work.
Effective groups pay attention to both the task ('what the group has to do' e.g., reduce ferret numbers) and the process (i.e., how the group functions and maintains relationships). Groups often neglect their process issues, commonly in order to concentrate on their task. However, both task and process will suffer if they are split from each other.
Because task and process are linked, it is important to measure progress of both. For example, groups will not only need to monitor how many ferrets are killed but also people's views on group involvement, field day attendance, etc. It is important to notice the changes that have occurred and reinforce them. Groups can become frustrated if they are only comparing their current achievements to an ultimate goal rather than recognising them as important steps along the way.
Also, too many groups depend upon the good work, energy, and commitment of one or more individuals and/or on the presence of dedicated projects. If the individual(s) are transferred or stop contributing, or if the project ceases to function, the process may be blocked or simply fail. The process should be institutionalised as much as possible, making it as independent of individuals and outside inputs.
5.4 Group supporting roles
Supporting groups involves a number of roles. Key among these is leadership that ensures the group achieves its goals, remains cohesive, and enables every participant to contribute to the best of their ability. Providing resource back-up such as expert advice, general secretarial and/or administration support is another key role.
Leadership
The purpose of group leadership is building and maintaining the group, and achieving its' objectives. Leadership in groups can be a fluid concept. At various times in group development different styles of leadership and types of leadership roles may be more appropriate than others. However leadership is defined, there are characteristics common to effective leaders, as shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Important aspects of leadership
|
Good leadership leads to a good group dynamic, where members demonstrate a strong sense of purpose, and tasks are carried out enthusiastically. There is high rate of attendance at meetings, and members are willing to take on increasing levels of responsibility and more complex tasks.
Leadership roles
Chairing meetings: is a common leadership role within groups. The chair generally has responsibility for:
- laying out the rules and procedures of the meeting (which, incidentally, should have been developed at the outset in discussion with all the members)
- ensuring that people speak in turn
- keeping order during the meetings
- striking subcommittees and ensuring that administrative duties are attended to
- and may hold a deciding vote.
A good chair pays close attention to detail, and ensures that the agenda are realistic and meaningful to the group as a whole (Donaldson & Kilvington 1996).
Facilitation: is an important aspect of leadership, which may be performed by a professional outside the group or a group member. Facilitation is more than simply ensuring that meetings or workshops run smoothly, agenda are adhered to, time lines respected, individuals get equal opportunity to speak, and a decent summary of the proceedings is produced. Important roles for a facilitator include:
- ensuring that everyone participates to the best of their ability,
- being aware of, and be willing to rectify, potential conflict areas, personality issues, or process breakdown,
- understanding group processes and being able to move the group through difficult stages,
- seeking consensus and recognising closure when it is reached.
This type of leadership role requires excellent people skills, an intuitive feel for potential conflict whether personality or issue driven, sensitivity to the concerns of others and the ability to help with these without appearing biassed and judgmental (Donaldson & Kilvington 1996).
Resourcing groups: Groups dealing with issues with a technical or expert component require information that may be provided by a resource leader, internal or external to the group( such as government scientists or private sector consultants). This person/s will generally provide advice and information when asked and clarification on specific questions relevant to the work at that time. When technical advice is not readily available within the group, another component of leadership is networking with external experts and advisors to bring in needed skills and information. This is part of the administration component of leadership, which may also include contacting group members, co-ordinating newsletters, and organising events.
Distinguishing roles: It is often tempting to combine the above roles in a single person but this should not be done without some consideration of the potential for conflict and the complexity of the mix of skills required. For instance it is not always possible for a group member to be sufficiently withdrawn from the core of the group to act as an effective facilitator, particularly in stages of conflict or uncertainty over group direction. Similarly, the time demands of a resource person, or the differing skill requirements of that person (such as the necessity for them to bring expert technical knowledge to the group) may preclude them having the energy or ability to act well as a chair or facilitator.
6. Issues and Discussion: Addressing LIP Convenor Concerns
During the interviews and workshops a number of convenors and farmers discussed the current management of LIP groups. Many convenors became involved with the LIP groups firstly because they were concerned about preventing Tb outbreaks on their properties, but also because they saw the necessity for a district-wide approach to controlling Tb-vectors, particularly ferrets due to their wide territorial range. However, they raised issues about group management, motivation, and their own role as convenors, and the way these influenced group effectiveness. These issues are outlined below (in italics) and discussed in terms of the frameworks for understanding motivation and group dynamics that are set out earlier in the report.
6.1 How successful are LIP groups?
Convenors often gave the impression that their groups appeared to have not accomplished much in the fight against Tb. They (the convenors) expressed concern that they were still dealing with administrative details regarding roles, responsibilities, and payment for various materials and services, rather than winning the battle against Tb vectors.
Clearly, some groups have been more successful than others in controlling Tb vectors. However, focussing on this alone, as a measure of success, ignores the fact that groups do not all start off from the same place. Currently, there are few established ways for LIP groups to measure their success in the short term, as the focus appears to be on the long-term goal of managing, or even eradicating ferrets. The groups have made a lot of progress along the way, and appropriate participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) methods need to be found to measure this (involving a mixture of monitoring the success of the group process, and achievement of tasks). A challenge here is to make monitoring and evaluation a valuable learning experience for groups, while also meeting the accountability requirements of the AHB. Groups need to be helped to recognise their successes, as success, in turn, brings about renewed commitment and motivation.
As part of this need to provide more feedback to increase motivation, convenors expressed a desire to raise the profile of the Tb problem within the district, but were concerned that over-publicising of issues could damage their image and hence the market value of their products. Convenors also asked about methods for transferring information to farmers about the status of bovine Tb in New Zealand at a local and national level.
6.2 Group facilitation: issues and concerns
What are areas of leadership responsibility?
A number of group convenors expressed a lack of confidence in the effectiveness of their facilitator in managing group processes. Convenors and LIP farmer group members cited a downturn in group participation and motivation following John Oliver's departure and the accompanying change in structure and function of the group facilitation role.
Part of this issue is the confusion over terminology (what does 'facilitator' or 'convenor' mean?), and, in particular, what is expected of an AHB facilitator as opposed to a LIP group convenor (1) . These concerns relate to the issue of group leadership described above in 7.4.
Is my involvement as convenor worthwhile?
Some convenors expressed concern that their role as convenor can occupy valuable farm time with little recognition in return.
The information gathered from the interviews and from meetings with LIP group members suggests convenors are getting too little administrative support. It also suggests a mismatch of skills in the current facilitating arrangements, which neglect fundamental roles of motivating the group and the broader community. Although the availability of technology and the ability to interpret that technology for the farming public is an important aspect of supporting LIPs, the people-management aspect of running effective groups appears to present some of the greatest difficulties for the group convenors. Just as groups need to have their achievements noted, so to do group convenors (section 8.1).
What skills do convenors need?
A number of different questions were raised in relation to this. On the one hand some convenors were calling for more training in how to run meetings, how to delegate tasks within groups, how to motivate groups, etc. Other convenors were confident in their ability, but passed strong judgement on those farmers who appear unwilling to contribute to Tb vector control or participate in the LIP group, dismissing those who are not actively participating, which suggests they have limited ability to recruit less willing members of their community.
Convenors need to be supported with appropriate people skills. This is equally true for those convenors who are asking for more skills to be able to more successfully involve group members, and those who dismiss local community members who do not participate. Training would help but convenors also need ongoing support from facilitators 1 .
How can we involve people more fully?
Convenors appeared to feel the responsibility to motivate their LIP group members - a task for which individuals consider themselves varyingly prepared. Common questions raised included:
- how can we motivate people to attend workshops?
- what are some ways of making sure neighbours are doing some work towards pest control?
Motivation is affected by numerous factors, not all of which are immediately evident and only some of which are subject to direct and deliberate influence (see section 6). However, groups can be run in
a way that will tap into a number of opportunities for influencing motivation to undertake Tb vector control, including increasing peer pressure through involvement of neighbours, establishing and rewarding good farming practice that includes pest management, and sharing information about easy and effective techniques.
Motivation is also affected by participation in activities and involvement in decision making. Involving people in monitoring and evaluation of the project they are working on provides an opportunity for individuals, groups, and organisations to learn more about their environment and to recognise the effects of their efforts. It also increases their motivation for continued involvement. Reasons for this are:
- people feel more committed to a project when their opinions about it are asked and valued,
- people like to know what the results of their efforts have been,
- people generally like to know how to do things better,
- and, if people are in a position to judge and evaluate their own work, they feel more comfortable about it than if only outsiders judge it.
How can we involve people who don't have a direct financial interest?
How can members of the community who have nothing to gain from Tb vector control (sheep farmers, lifestylers, etc.) be convinced to join efforts of the LIP groups?
Involvement with LIP groups may not be the only policy instrument needed to encourage Tb vector control in non-directly-affected parties. Voluntary approaches are likely to work best, and have the greatest dependability, when there is a substantial coincidence between public interests and the private (especially commercial) interests of individuals.
However, as identified in section 6, factors such as the importance of maintaining good farming practice , the perceived significance of the Tb issue to the broader community, and the influence of peers, have the potential to affect the motivation of landowners to undertake Tb vector control. There is substantial goodwill in the community to work towards common goals. Different sectors of landowners (e.g., lifestyle block owners, sheep farmers) will have different information needs and perceptions of the Tb problem. These need to be researched further in order to target the most effective approaches to draw the support of all sectors of the community.
6.3 Improving opportunities for information transfer
A number of concerns about information transfer and overall coordination were also raised by the convenors, such as:
- is it possible to have a central resource person who has contact and information for the entire North Canterbury region with regard to Tb vector control and LIP groups?
What was identified here was that when one person (John Oliver) had a coordinating role for North Canterbury as a whole, people felt that they knew what was going on. This extension role provided an ideal mechanism for getting the lessons learnt in any one group, out to the rest. With the change to having a number of individual facilitators for the region, this function has largely disappeared.
where can farmers/convenors/facilitators find out information about innovative field days, guest speakers, newsletters etc?
Convenors of different groups all have the same needs and it would help if the answers to these questions could be accessed from one point (e.g., the Internet). This saves different people having to go through the same searching routine each time. Having one facilitator would also help.
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
7.1 Conclusions
'Increasing motivation' is often considered to be a single objective, and lack of motivation to undertake a task such as Tb vector control is commonly attributed to single and discrete causes (such as drought, or falling product prices). However, motivation is made up of numerous factors, not all of which are immediately evident and only some of which are subject to direct and deliberate influence. Two principal types of factors contribute to motivation: (i) subjective norms i.e., what the individual perceives to be the social pressures promoting a certain behaviour and; (ii) personal attitudes towards that behaviour. A combination of regulations, incentives and disincentives, and voluntary approaches can influence motivation factors in varying ways. Voluntary approaches (such as the LIP groups) are attractive policy options for reasons of flexibility and acceptance by the target group. To influence behaviour, voluntary initiatives need to be supported by learning-based, technology transfer.
Farmer involvement in local vector control groups provides a significant opportunity to influence landowners' perceptions of the importance of the Tb problem, and their understanding of the control methods available to them. It can also influence the degree of social pressure experienced by landowners to undertake control on their properties. A number of Local Initiative Programme (LIP) and voluntary groups have already been established through the efforts of AHB. These groups provide a vehicle for improved information sharing, collaborative learning, and influencing behaviour change.
Groups that function well do not happen by accident. It takes patience, persistence, and resources. It also requires skill in managing group dynamics to keep the group moving in a positive direction. Groups will not function successfully all the time. Awareness of what is happening to a group, understanding a group's needs for resources and leadership, and access to the skills necessary to address this, are crucial to the long-term viability of groups, and their success in achieving their goals. Successful groups are those that have confidence in leadership, a sense of cooperation, good communication, and put effort into maintaining a good process as well as achieving set tasks. Encouraging members of groups to participate in monitoring the progress of the group and evaluating achievements strengthens motivation as well as increases understanding.
Management of information is also an important ingredient of motivation. The Internet offers an opportunity to reduce the duplication of effort that occurs when many players are seeking the same new knowledge, and forms a powerful and immediate link between farmer group facilitators, group leaders, researchers, and other relevant agency staff.
7.2 Recommendations
- There are multiple factors that can affect landowner motivation to undertake Tb vector control. A range of policy approaches that address a mix of factors will have a greater likelihood of successfully influencing motivation. LIP groups can be used creatively to influence a number of these factors.
- Managing the various developmental stages of groups, their leadership, and information needs requires support and active facilitation by those with good 'people' skills. Although much of the work by groups is voluntary, effectively managing and supporting these groups is an area that requires resourcing.
- Monitoring and evaluation of the LIP should take into account process aspects (such as group development, and core aspects of successful groups) as well as task achievement (such as the number of Tb vectors killed).
7.3 Scope of the work and further research
This work does not include a comprehensive survey of 'what motivates farmers to undertake Tb vector control' in North Canterbury, and has not conducted an analysis of the current status of LIP groups and their effectiveness in achieving Tb vector control. This research has provided two frameworks:
- factors affecting motivation of landowner's to undertake Tb vector control.
Further research would use this framework to understand more about the factors affecting landowners and their motivation to undertake Tb vector control, including their current understanding of the Tb problem, beliefs about control methods, and beliefs about the role of vector control in standard farming practice. In particular, with the change in land-use patterns in the southern part of North Canterbury, and the corresponding increase in small, lifestyle blocks, it will be important to ascertain the different levels of understanding, information needs, and expectations amongst these new landowners.
- factors affecting the success of LIP groups.
Further research would use this framework to monitor and evaluate the LIP groups, in particular to ascertain the effectiveness of process issues as well as achievement of tasks.
8. Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Animal Health Board. Collaborative research, such as described here, is not possible without the support of the community, and we would like to record our appreciation to all those farmers, scientists, agency and regional council staff who collectively contributed to this work through the provision of their time and input.
9. References
Allen, W.J. ; Bosch, O.J.H. 1998: The role of hypermedia and the Internet in facilitating an ongoing and collaborative learning environment for improved management of bovine Tb. Landcare Research Contract Report LC9798/110, Lincoln, New Zealand
Allen, W.J.; Bosch, O.J.H.; Kilvington, M.J.; Oliver, J. The role of adaptive management, co-learning and hypermedia-based decision support systems in natural resource management. (unpublished data submitted: Journal of Environmental Management).
Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. 1980: Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA Prentice-Hall.
Bosch, O.J.H. ; Allen, W.J. 1998: Assisting the identification and uptake of effective Tb control strategies: the development of a learning environment. Landcare Research Contract Report LC9798/105, Lincoln, New Zealand.
Carrascal, M.J.; Pau, L.F. and Reiner, L. 1995: Knowledge and information transfer in agriculture using hypermedia: a system review. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 12: 83-119.
Donaldson, C. ; Kilvington, M. 1996: Working with communities. Unpublished handbook. Landcare Research, Lincoln, New Zealand.
Hunter, D., Bailey, A, Taylor, B. 1992: The Zen of groups: A handbook for people meeting with a purpose. Auckland , New Zealand, Tandem press
Muir, W.K. 1967: Under what circumstances can law bring about attitude change? In: Grossman and Grossman, Law and change in modern America. Pacific Palisades, Canada, Goodyear Publishing.
Kelman, S. 1983: Economic incentives and environmental policy: Politics, ideology and philosophy. In: Schelling, T., Incentives for environmental protection. Cambridge, USA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.
Young, M.D.; Gunningham, N.; Elix, J.; Lambert, J.; Howard, B.; Grabosky, P.; McCrone, E. 1996: Reimbursing the future: An evaluation of motivational, voluntary, price-based, property-right, and regulatory incentives for the conservation of biodiversity A report prepared by CSIRO Division of Wildlife and Ecology, the Australian Centre for Environmental Law, and Community Solutions.
Footnotes:
1. Note: during the course of this project these roles have been redefined by the AHB LIP coordinator, using, in part, the framework developed in this report for group dynamics.
The formatting in this document has been amended to fit that of this website. Some sections have been omitted to minimise duplication, and the appendices have also been omitted.
Page last updated: Friday, September 14, 2001