Communicating science - Reflecting on practice.
Information and knowledge tend to stay where they are produced, according to Saywell and Cotton (1999) in their literature review on research dissemination strategies. Our funding agencies feel that their money is not well spent if the research is not disseminated and used. In addition, changes in the socio-political environment mean that as researchers, our end users' needs are changing, and new groups of people are becoming users of science information. Thus, thinking about communication and information exchange is becoming increasingly important in today's science environment.
This page outlines some of the things that we know about communicating science - these are gleaned both from the literature and from experiences that Landcare Research Staff have had in working to improve communication. An associated page provides some guidelines to helping individuals and groups to evaluate and plan their own communication activities.
Communication can be seen in different ways:
Communication is often treated as technology transfer, education, or awareness raising.
Here, information flows in one direction, and the receiving audience are treated as if they are empty vessels waiting to be "filled" with information. This idea results in the development of campaigns urging people to make some changes to their everyday practices by killing pests, saving energy, minimising waste or some such. As Bickerstaff & Walker (2002) note, however, such programmes have not generally been noted for their success. To bring about change, much more is often needed (see Allen et al. 2002 ).
Awareness raising campaigns are only part of a much bigger story.
Intelligent communication means working with others, understanding the system, the networks of people in it, and using that knowledge to manage communication adaptively by planning , acting, monitoring and reviewing results in a pattern similar to that of any form of systematic management.
If you want to improve your communication - i.e make it more efficient and effective - then doing more of the same thing may not be the best option. However this is NOT to advocate wholesale sweeping changes to what you do in the name of improving it. It is better to make small well-considered changes and to monitor the effect that they have. That way you won't "throw out the baby with the bathwater".
Knowing your end users
Our end users are people with their own goals and objectives who may want US to change as much as we want THEM to change. Often to change others, it is also necessary for us to make some changes.
End-users have valuable information that can help you work better with them. Thus, two way communication is important. The difficult part is staying engaged long enough to realise this.
Two way communication requires as much time listening and finding out about the needs and knowledge of others as in giving them information. Often, in practice, this feels like spending more time listening and finding out than offering advice or information.
Often, too, we are so passionate about our own field we tend to want to tell people something that we find really interesting without finding out what they really want to know. It takes much forethought and self control (and often, failed attempts) to find out about the needs and knowledge of others first.
Much important communication is about the different contexts within which different groups of people work. End users of science information are experts on the problems and barriers that they face when working out how to incorporate new information.
They will have their own ways of thinking about the problems that they face and they will know about their own contexts. These things are all useful thing to find out about.
Data, information knowledge and wisdom
As Figure 1 indicates, data, information and knowledge differ. Knowledge varies between contexts and emerges from the flows of information around the system.
Knowledge includes data and information within a particular context. When a scientists' knowledge moves into a practitioner's context, it is relegated to information and it is the practioner that has to do the work of making this information into new knowledge. Science knowledge is just another piece of information to be incorporated into the knowledge of a practitioner.
Of course this works the other way. When a practitioner's knowledge moves into a scientist's context, it is just another piece of information to be incorporated into the knowledge of the scientist.
Figure 1: The different aspects of knowledge (Allen 1999)
People working together must create a common knowledge by coming to understand each other's information.
People from different knowledge cultures within a system may:
- not see the relevance of each other's information,
- feel that there is nothing new to learn from other groups,
- assume that they understand each other better than they do.
Sometimes when we are working with others who carry different forms of knowledge to our own, it is almost as if different groups speak different languages, and this has the greatest negative effect on communication if both groups do not realise that this is the case.
Learning to listen actively
A useful way to test your own understanding of another is to mentally try putting what they say into your own words and then checking with them that you have it right by asking something like - "so do you mean ....". It can be surprising how often you think you understand something but find that you can't put it into your own words - or that the person you are listening to corrects your interpretation.
Thinking about your own communication activities
Communication is something we all do all the time and perhaps because of that, it is not always clear that it needs some thought, particularly when trying to improve effectiveness. Click here for some questions that might help you think through your own practices
Stakeholders and end users
Stakeholders are those who can influence the use of your research as well as those who can use your research. It is well worth spending a few minutes doing a stakeholder analysis and thinking about how you fit into the information network you are concerned with. It may not always be enough to focus only on end users.
A different strategy is needed for different levels of engagement:
- As a general rule, the more you need end users to engage with your information (i.e., the more complex it is), the more you will have to engage with them.
- Greater participation and uptake of information might require attention to building networks - across the whole information system (not just between yourself and others). In successful networks the engagement work can be passed through the network.
Different forms of communication do not occur in isolation. Awareness raising and getting to know people may be ways of building a profile, which then create a demand for information.
Likewise, when a relationship is well established it may be possible to rely on sending out information so that if a party needs more information they will come to you. Such an approach is unlikely to be successful before an relationship has been established.
In an information system, we are all information providers, and all end users. End users of our information also have information that sheds light on the problem and which can help us communicate better.In an information system, we are all information providers, and all end users. End users of our information also have information that sheds light on the problem and which can help us communicate better.
It is important to know something about the needs and aspirations of those with whom you are working.
Table 1 shows a framework for thinking about how information gets incorporated into desired outcomes.
Table 1: Stages of change and appropriate communication forms (Adapted from Parnell & Benton 1999)
| Stage | Definition | Communication Forms | Adaptive Strategy |
| Pre awareness | People at this stage are unaware of the information and possibly also the need for it | Media releases, popular articles, informal discussion, newsletters | Individuals are continually scoping for new information from different parts of the information system |
| Awareness | People are aware of the information and you are aware of their perspective | Newsletters, informal discussion, seminars, summaries/ abstracts/ popular articles | Individuals are continually scoping for new information from different parts of the information system |
| Understanding | People understand the implications of your information and vice versa | Workshops, negotiation, science papers, website use, phone calls etc. | People engage with each other willingly to work through issues/ problems |
| Participation/ action | People are using your information to achieve desired outcomes and vice versa | Ongoing and regular contact through a wide range of media. Development of new systems for incorporating the change. Advocacy on the part of some end users | Individuals are willing to try new ways of doing things while monitoring the effect of those strategies in a range of ways |
| Maintenance | All involved have internalised the information & now consistently work in the new way to achieve outcomes | Ongoing, regular contact through a wide range of media | Individuals support the desired changes and continue to scope for new information as part of continuous improvement |
Barriers and opportunities for information uptake
A common barrier to information uptake is resistance to change. This resistance can come from a number of different sources, from a fear of losing one's identity to the encroachment of environmental factors which make it difficult for an individual to make a change or even to know how to make the change.
Research tells us that change is NOT a linear process. It is more like a series of cycles in which people learn a bit, then apply that learning in a range of different situations or circumstances. First attempts at applying new learning often fail in some way.
We all need time, repetition and feedback to gradually use new information. The more complex the information, the more iterations and the more two-way communication is needed so that different parties have to learn to understand each other.
How we all use information depends on the context within which we work, as well as our propensity to change and seek out new and better ways to do things. Figure 2 illustrates some of the factors affecting information use.
Figure 2: Barriers and opportunities in information use
Another important feature of the information system is that people should be able to find relevant information when they need it. Thus, any communication activity must be supported by the provision of appropriate types of information, in a financially and physically accessible place, for when users want it.
Seeking feedback
Feedback can come from monitoring activities however in a complex situation where many players are involved it can be difficult to develop reliable and valid quantitative indicators of 'success'.
You may also be able to get some valuable feedback by spending some time evaluating your science communication activities .
Part of the evaluation process also involves seeking feedback directly from those with whom you are working.
Seeking feedback can be a difficult process. It is not always easy to ask for feedback nor to accept it if it isn't all good. Equally, the people giving you feedback may find it difficult to tell you something negative.
However, feedback is important and it is worth spending some time thinking about how to get constructive feedback that helps you improve your outcomes in a way that feels safe for all parties. Another important consideration is that the person giving you feedback also needs to feel that it is worth their while spending time on such an activity.
For this reason, it is worth keeping them informed about how you have used their feedback - and perhaps why you have not used all of it. Another way to show that you really are listening is to check with them that you understand what they are suggesting and that the changes you are thinking of making will address the issues they have raised.
It might be possible to tailor some specific questions to target parts of your communication without being too devastating if they come back with something negative! Likewise, thinking about how to seek feedback is about helping others both to feel comfortable giving it and to feel it was worth their while doing it.
Developing information networks
Much of our most useful information comes from people with whom we have "weak" links (i.e. people we interact with less often). This is because the people with whom we have strong links (the people we interact with most often) are most likely to know the same things as us. It is the people we interact with less often that bring new information into a group of strongly-linked people (Granovetter 1973, Watts & Strogatz 1998).
Support staff can often provide links right across the organisation. For example, librarians often know what information people are looking for.
Some staff are employed specifically for communication work. They have contact with many different people and are potentially useful sources of information for you as well as being employed to put your information out for you.
Communication and information exchange inside a company often mirror communication and information exchange between the company and external stakeholders - this means that working on communication within your own organisation might be as productive as working on communication with people outside the organisation.
Internal, 'newsletters' can be quite useful tools in flagging short snippets about what different people are getting up to in their work. Ideally, they should flag what is coming up as well as things that have already happened.
Making the most of your communication work
Many stakeholders do not have the time to read full scientific publications, but they may want to know that the science behind the information that they get is well-founded.
Popular articles can be contributed to the newsletters or magazines of enduser groups, and posted on a website as an alternative to scientific publications (but be careful of copyright when using an article several times).
A multilayered website can provide useful and timely support for the communication that organisation staff already do.
Putting plain English abstracts up on the web provides other staff and external stakeholders with a clear idea of what research is going on in the organisation.
References
Allen, W. 1999: Improving the use of collaborative approaches within natural resource management. http://nrm.massey.ac.nz/changelinks/kno_inf.html
Allen, W.; Kilvington, M.; Horn, C. 2002: Using participatory and learning-based approaches for environmental management to help achieve constructive behaviour change. Landcare Research Contract Report LC0102/057, Lincoln, New Zealand. Prepared for Ministry of the Environment. [ Full report ]
Aston, J. 1996: Your 'two bobs worth': its journey through a bureacracy. Reef Research, 6 (1) downloaded from: http://www.gbrmpa.gov.au/corp_site/info_services/publications/reef_research/ issue1_96/1bobs.html 1st June, 2003.
Bickerstaffe, K.; Walker, G. 2002: Risk, Responsibility and blame: an analysis of vocabularies of motive in air-pollution(ing) discourses. Environment and Planning A, 34: 2175-2192.
Granovetter, M. 1973: The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology 78: 1360-1380.
Parnell, B. & Benton, K. 1999: Facilitating sustainable behaviour change: A guidebook for designing HIV programs. UNDP Asia and Pacific Regional programme on HIV and development.
Saywell, D.L. & Cotton, A.P., 1999: Spreading the Word: Practical Guidelines for Research Dissemination . Loughborough University: WEDC.
Watts, D.J.; Strogatz, S.H. 1998: Collective Dynamics of Small-World Networks. Nature, 393: 440-442.
Page written by Chrys Horn, June 2003
last updated April 2006